A-Infos (en) The Commoner N.7 - Introduction to table: "Neoliberal Governance and Social Resistance: A Chronology of Events" - by Coady Buckley

[Massimo De Angelis <m.deangelis@btinternet.com>(http://www.commoner.org.uk/)]

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The accompanying table "Neoliberal  Governance and Social
Resistance: A Chronology of Events" has been compiled in order to
chart certain key events in global political economy from two
perspectives: (1) the emergence of key ‘organising’ terms
such as ‘liberalisation’, ‘governance’,
‘development’, ‘sustainability’ and so on, at the
level of the nation state and the international organisation through
which they operate; and (2) the social movements that have
emerged both in opposition to these ‘organising terms’ as
well as those that accept them. Of course this is not to imply that
the history of political economy consists of struggles over the
meanings of words and policies—the advances and declines in
global socio-economic conditions are all to real for millions of
people.

The table is not an attempt to discover ‘a hidden truth’
beyond the use of terms such as governance and sustainable
development as they are employed by organisations such as the
World Bank (the Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
The research carried out here is rather intended to highlight the
emergence of actual events and most importantly to locate parallel
responses to these events. The temporal relations in this table are,
in this sense, the most revealing. Also clear is a number of strategic
moves by official organisations that can be seen to either precede or
follow profound social movements.

Rather than attempting draw out tenuous or underlying
consequences from the table we should read it for what is evident
‘on the surface level’. Any further critical scrutiny should
begin from this point. Some of the most important events are
highlighted below.

The negotiations that are now referred to as the ‘Bretton Woods
Agreements’ stand out as a defining moment in the past 60
years. Virtually all of the organisations that structure the global
financial environment, as well as the attitudes that guide policy,
emerged from the meetings at Bretton Woods, USA. In fact, if one
were to take into account the strong protests made by Britain’s
negotiating team at the meetings in 1944—led by the economist
John Maynard Keynes—this could be regarded as the first
protest against global financial institutions; the mantel of which has
passed from eminent economists to ordinary people whose lives
have been devastated over 60 years.

If we do not regard Britain’s protest at Bretton Woods as the
first protest then specific protests against the IMF can been seen
as early as 1976 (in Peru). This followed as series of developments
whereby the Bretton Woods Institutions shifted their focus away
from the reconstruction of Western Europe immediately following
the second world war (Britain was a major debtor nation at the
time) towards the ‘development’ of other nation states in
what was then called ‘the third world’. Consequently the
entire system of creditor nations lending their economic surplus to
debtor nations for development came to rely entirely on the debtor
countries generating trade surpluses to balance out the system. The
tragedy of systemic debt established under the IMF and the Bank is
now well known, and the continuous wave of social movements
evident in the table makes this clear.

One particular policy stands out against the rest however. In 1980
the Multilateral Development Banks initiated what was called
"policy based lending" or structural adjustment policies (SAPs).
 From this point on the conditions imposed on many debtor countries
caused debt to spiral out of control, while the conditionalities
imposed often hit fundamental social goods, dramatically harming
millions of ordinary people. The wave of protests against the Bank
and IMF explodes from this period.

About 10 years later some response by the Bretton Woods
Institutions can be seen. The publication, by the World Bank, of its
World Development Report (WDR) first raised the issue of
reducing poverty and isolates examples of ‘successful
development’ in some developing countries. From 1990
onwards, the WDR has become an important strategic document for
the Bank and for individuals and groups opposed to its agenda.

The next major event is not easily characterised and has become a
‘touch stone’ for contemporary social movements. The
World Trade Organisation (WTO), another of the international
bodies that has huge influence over the global financial system, held
its annual meeting in Seattle, Washington USA. Large scale
protests by people from the developed and developing nations
succeed in terminating the meeting and triggered off a new wave of
global protests (see the table for details). Heavy handed
‘military’ style policing used by the state against protestors
also marks a key development, although this practice has long
existed in many of the debtor nations.

An increase in violence has become pronounced in the events listed
in the latter part of the table. From Seattle, where the state resorted
to increasing violence against ordinary people protesting, to the
attacks on the New York World Trade Centre and the Washington
Pentagon signalled a more violent response against the established
international institutions. We should note that these attacks where
not simply against the Bank, IMF or WTO and consideration should
be given to the complex relationships between these organisations,
their internal structures and operational charters, and the
overwhelming influence on them of a single nation state, the USA.
In this sense many of the global protests (including terrorism)
reflect a more complex and totalising view of the gap between the
global north and the global south (terms which themselves indicate
this growing polarisation).

Consequently, the latter part of the table is dominated by anti-war
protests on an unprecedented scale—literally millions of people
protesting in hundreds of nation states, in some case
simultaneously co-ordinated.

A parallel situation that has emerged is the Bank, IMF and WTO
have increasingly resorted to either unjustifiable violent suppression
and prevention of protests, or located meetings in states where
anti-democratic or absolutist regimes effectively prevent any large
scale protests. This increasing avoidance of transparency and
accountability is justified on the basis of the threat of violence
(protest) in the aftermath of the 11th of September 2001, but as is
evident from the table this trend began in Seattle 1999 not
withstanding earlier violence against protestors in parts of the
developing world.

In the right hand column of the table there are numerous
connections to the internet that link to underlying sources, key
documents, historical descriptions and websites of the
organisations and events mentioned here.

[Ed. Note:
The Thable is in the original form at
http://www.commoner.org.uk/07buckleytable.htm ]

           Neoliberal Governance and Social Resistance: A Chronology
of Events             Compiled by Coady Buckley. The Commoner, N.7,
Spring/Summer 2003. http://www.thecommoner.org             Date1
Year  Official Event  Resistance or Movement  Comments and
Links               1942  - Speech by President Roosevelt (USA)
"Declaration by 'United Nations'"
- First official use of the name "United Nations"
   Link: A Joint Declaration by the United Nations, subscribing to the
Principles of the Atlantic Charter, January 1, 1942 July 1944 -
Bretton Woods Agreements, created the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

   Link: Summary of so-called "Bretton Woods Agreements". United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference at Bretton Woods. July
22, 1944 26 June 1945 - The United Nations established
   Link: history of the UN 23 June
1946 - The World Bank formally begins operations.
   Link: pages on the World Bank - history, chronology and archives
27 September
1946 - First annual meeting of the board of governors of the World
Bank held in Washington.
     4 December 1946 - President Eugene Meyer resigns.
     15 November 1947 - The United Nations General Assembly
approved an agreement formalizing the  relationship with the IBRD
     11 March
1955 - The Economic Development Institute, aimed at serving as
the Bank's staff college, is established; financial support from the
Ford and Rockefeller Foundations.
     15 April 1955 - Bank transmitted charter of proposed International
Finance Corporation (IFC) to member governments for approval.
   Link: basic facts and history about the IFC
19 September 1960 - The Indus Waters Treaty signed by Pakistan,
India, and the World Bank in Karachi, thus opening the way to the
use and development of water resources on which depends the
livelihood of some 50 million people in the two countries
   Comment: early instance of 'water rights' issue   1964 - UNCTAD,
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development established
   Link: information about 'UNCTAD' September 1970 - World Bank,
an operations evaluation unit (OEU) established, whose
responsibility it is to evaluate the contribution of World Bank Group
operations to the development of member countries
     July 1976   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Peru
   January 1977   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Egypt
     1978 - Tobin Tax, Global Taxation - first proposed by James Tobin
   Link: information about James Tobin - Nobel Laureate (1981)
September 1978   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ghana
   August 1978 - First World Development Report is published
   Link: World Development Report website January 1979   Protests
against World Bank and IMF
- Jamaica
   April 1979   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Liberia
     1980 - Brandt Commission - (Independent Commission on
International Development) chaired by Willy Brandt. Report:
"North-South: A Program for Survival linked economic equity to
development" beginning of "sustainable development" concept
     February 1980   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Philippines
     1980 - Multilateral Development Banks (MDB) began "policy
based lending" or structural adjustment.
- From the 1980s onward, the World Bank/IMF increasingly dictated
macroeconomic policies to debtor nations.  By 1996 about
one-quarter of all World Bank lending was in the form of structural
adjustment programs.
     May 1980   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Zaire
   July 1980   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Turkey
     1980     Comment: Greenpeace establishes one of the first global
communication networks for its international staff
June 1981   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Morocco
   August 1981   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Sierra Leone
   September 1981 - US and global inflationary pressure was
disrupted by the brutal twin recessions of 1980-82 brought on by the
new Fed chairman, Paul Volker, and his attack on the monetary
aggregates.
   Link: copies of US Federal Reserve Speeches (from 1996
onwards)   1982 - Fall in oil prices causes Mexico to default on
international debts; beginning of world debt crisis
   Link: World Bank Group Historical Chronology (1980-1989)
January 1982   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Sudan
   March 1982   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina
   October 1982   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador & Chile
   March 1983   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Bolivia
   April 1983   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Brazil
   October 1983   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Panama
   January 1984    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Tunisia
   April 1984    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Dominican Republic
   January 1985    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Jamaica
   March 1985    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Bolivia & Zaire
   May 1985    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Haiti & El Salvador

   August 1985    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Costa Rica

   September 1985    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Bolivia & Guatemala

   February 1986    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Mexico
   May 1986    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Nigeria
   September 1986    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Bolivia
   November 1986    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Yugoslavia
     1987 - Brundtland Commission - (World Commission on
Environment and Development).
Report: "Our Common Future" which defined "sustainable
development". Chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland. Members
included Shridath Ramphal and Maurice Strong
     19 October 1987 - The largest single day stockmarket drop on
Wall Street (and other global markets) occurred (known as 'Black
Monday' in reference to the crash of 1929)
   Link: New York Stock Exchange timeline
January 1987    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Sierra Leone & Zambia
   March 1987    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador, Ghana & Poland
   October 1987    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador
   November 1987    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Algeria, Romania & Sudan
   12 April 1988 - The international convention establishing the
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) took effect
   Link: about MIGA April 1988    Protests against World Bank and
IMF
- Nigeria
   June 1988    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ghana
   August 1988    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Hungary
   October 1988    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Algeria
   9 November 1989 - Berlin Wall collapsed triggering the final
disintegration of the Eastern Bloc and wide ranging global strategic
political reorientation
   Comment: major financial as well as political implications January
1989    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Benin
   February 1989    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Venezuela
   April 1989    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Benin & Jordan
   May 1989    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina & Nigeria
   16 July 1990 - World Bank, World Development Report 1990,
outlines a strategy for reducing poverty based on experiences from
developing countries around the world
     February 1990    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ivory Coast & Niger
   March 1990    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Nigeria
   June 1990    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Zambia
   July 1990    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Trinidad
   December 1990    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Morocco & Uganda
     1991 - Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance.
   Comment: origin of Commission on Global Governance
   1991 - Major global recession
   Link: an IMF document (in pdf format) " World Economic Outlook
- Recessions and Recoveries"
May 1991    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Nigeria
   August 1991    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Iran
   3-14 June 1992 - The UN Conference on Environment and
Development (Earth Summit)
   Link: about 'UNEP' milestones page (key documents and websites
including Rio declaration (1992) and Agenda 21
February 1992    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Albania, India & Venezuela
   April 1992    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Nepal
   May 1992    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Nigeria & Zimbabwe
   December 1992    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- India
     1992 - Global Biodiversity Strategy - published jointly by UNEP,
IUCN, WWF, and WRI.
- U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) -
Rio de Janeiro.  Produced: Agenda 21, Convention on Biological
Diversity; Framework Convention on Climate Change;
Statement of Forest Principles;
Rio Declaration.
- U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development - created to
advance Agenda 21
   Link: UNEP full text of 'Agenda 21' documents   1993 - First
Meridian Conference on Global Governance - held in Bolinas,
California
     October 1993   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- India & Russia
Comment: more than 500,000 people protest the Uruguay Round of
GATT, in Bangalore, India
1 January 1994 - NAAEC (North American Agreement on
Environmental Co-operation)
- NAALC (North American Agreement on Labour Co-operation)
- NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)
- Zapatista (EZLN) uprising in south west region of Mexico
Comment: beginning of extensive transnational links in structure of
global resistance.
   So called global electronic resistance   1994 - First Summit of the
Americas, Miami, USA. 34 Nations participated. Agreement to
work towards creating a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)
   Link: the FTAA website January 1994    Protests against World
Bank and IMF
- Uganda
   May 1994    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Mexico
   June 1994    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Gabon
     1994 - World Trade Organization (WTO) - formed at Uruguay
round of GATT negotiations
   Link: about the WTO 29 September 1994 - 50th Anniversary of
World Bank and IMF - Manibeli Declaration (asking for ban on WB
funding of Dams)
- Establishment of '50 Years is Enough' campaign
     1995 - World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen.
- Commission on Sustainable Development
   Comment: in 1995 the International Finance Corporation (IFC)
made almost US$3 billion in loans and equity investments for 213
corporate projects in 67 countries. The IFC's support for these
investments leveraged another US$15 billion in financing for these
corporate ventures. Overall, the World Bank Group, supports "about
$25 billion of private-sector finance a year, or 10 percent of all
investment by private enterprise in developing countries."
   1995 - "Our Global Neighborhood", final report released by the
Commission on Global Governance
     July 1995    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador
   November 1995    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Kenya
   September 1995   Protests against World Bank
- Spain
   24 October 1995 - 50th Anniversary of UN - Establishment of
'Peoples Assemblies'
Link: to document 'Towards A Peoples Assembly by the Year 2000'
   1996 - Campaign for U.N. Reform, organized to lobby for global
governance
     27 July to 3 August 1996   - EZLN organize the 'First Encuentro'
in Aguascalientes, Southern Mexico

   29 September 1996 - World Bank, Interim Committee and
Development Committee endorse and call for implementation of the
Initiative to assist the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
     2-4 February 1997 - Microcredit Summit (Washington, DC)
     February 1997   Protests against World Bank and IMF
- South Africa
   July 1997 - Asian Financial Crisis
   Link: a page dedicated to Asian Financial Crisis - Nouriel Roubini's
Global Economics Policy Site
   1997   - Activists, coordinating a global campaign through the
Internet, force the OECD to shelve plans for a Multilateral
Agreement on Investment, which would have opened up the global
economy to corporate investment beyond existing agreements at
that time
     1998 - FTAA, Fourth Trade Ministerial Meeting, San Jose, Costa
Rica
     23-26 February 1998   - People's Global Action worldwide
co-ordination of resistance against the global market
Link: 'People's Global Action' homepage May 1998   Protests
against World Bank and IMF
- Indonesia
   16 May 1998 - G8 Summit on Debt Relief - 70,000 people protest in
Birmingham blocking city centre (meeting moved to country)
   1 June 1998   - Organised march of Children to stop child labour,
finishing at the ILO in Geneva
   14 October 1998 - France withdraws from OECD negotiations on
the MAI.  Negotiations subsequently terminated
     15-17 November 1998   - Meeting of 38 national 'Jubilee 2000'
Campaigns in Rome on Debt cancellation
   31 January 1999 - The Secretary-General of UN first proposed the
'Global Compact' at the World Economic Forum, Davos
     18 June 1999   J18 - An International day of action, protest and
carnival aimed at the heart of the global economy
Link: the J18 Protest London   1999 - Charter for Global Democracy,
consolidates recommendations of Commission on Global
Governance into 12 principles
   Link: Charter for Global Democracy and 12 principles February
1999    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Romania
   April 1999    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Mexico
   May 1999    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina
   July 1999    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador
   December 1999    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina
   30 November-3 December 1999 - WTO Conference in Seattle,
USA - Large scale public protests. 50,000 people take to the streets
in Seattle in protests against the WTO effectively stopping the
meeting for a day. Ultimately these protests cause the WTO talks
to collapse
   January 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Ecuador
   March 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Costa Rica
   April 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina, Bolivia, Kenya & Zambia
   May 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina, India, Malawi, South Africa, Russia, Turkey & Zambia
   June 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Argentina, Ecuador, Paraguay & Nigeria
   26 July 2000 - United Nations Global Compact joint initiative on
Human Rights, Labour and Environment launched
   Link: UN Global Compact August 2000    Protests against World
Bank and IMF
- Columbia & Honduras
   September 2000    Protests against World Bank and IMF
- Brazil
       - World Economic Forum, in Davos, Switzerland
- Thousands protest the gathering of corporate CEOs and world
leaders in Davos
   8 March 2000 - The International Financial Institution Advisory
Commission ("Meltzer Commission") releases report. The report is
highly critical of the World Bank and IMF and urges that they be
radically reduced and restructured
     April 2000   - Bolivia, large scale nation-wide protests against
water privatization in Bolivia force American corporate giant
Bechtel to withdraw from the country. Plans for privatization are put
on hold
   May 2000   - Argentina, up to 80,000 protested against the IMF
   May 2000   - Kenya, a peaceful demonstration calling for debt
relief and an end to IMF conditions ends in violence and arrests of
63 protestors, including 15 church leaders
   June 2000   - Argentina, over 7.2 million workers support a 24 hour
general strike in defiance of the new IMF-prescribed labour laws
   16 April 2000 - Washington, D.C., World Trade Organization
(WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) hold annual
spring meetings (held since 1975)
- Large scale public protests   August 2000   - Columbia, 15,000
workers go on protest and strike regarding IMF's loan conditions
   28-30 August 2000 - UNDPI/NGO Forum held in New York to
strengthen "Civil Society" role in UN operations
     6 September 2000 - World Bank and IMF, (James Wolfensohn
and Horst Kohler) issue a joint statement on shared objectives and
guiding principles
   Link: press release from World Bank September 2000   - Brazil,
referendum asking whether Brazil should discontinue IMF reforms
is backed by more than a million people. Organised by the National
Council of Bishops and Jubilee 2000, the 'unofficial' referendum is a
marked success."
   11 September 2000 - World Economic Forum, Melbourne Australia
- 10,000 to 30,000 protestors in Melbourne at the World Economic
Forum.
   September 2000 World Bank and IMF meetings held in Prague
- Prague, Czech Republic, Large scale public protests, 9000
demonstrators participate in protests at the World Bank and IMF
Annual Meeting.  Meetings end earlier than scheduled
   January 2001   - Angola, national strikes resulting from IMF
prescribed adjustment policies
   January 2001 - World Economic Forum, Davos, Switzerland -
World Social Forum, Porto Alegre in Brazil, meeting attended by
over 10,000 people. The goal was to discuss alternatives to the
current forms of globalization
   February 2001   - Ecuador, nation-wide demonstrations and an
activist occupation of the IMF offices in Quito, the Confederation of
Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) claims victory as
the President of the country bows to their demands to lower gas
prices and subsidize poor rural sectors
   February 2001 - World Economic Forum, Cancun, Mexico.
- Hundreds of protestors (attacked by police)
     2001 - Free Trade of the Americas Agreement (FTAA) meeting in
Quebec
- Large scale public protests   18 March 2001   - Naples, Italy, an
estimated 20,000 protestors march
   1 May 2001   - Global May Day Protests
Link: Guardian newspaper special reports website on May Day
World Events
May 2001   - Hawaii, USA, saw protest at the Asia Development
Bank and its policies, similar to those of the World Bank and IMF
   July 2001   - India, ten million state employees go on general strike
against privatisation plans and to call for a halt to IMF, World Bank
and WTO policies
     2001 - Genoa, G8 summit
- Large scale public protests, at least one demonstrator killed by
violent police crackdown. Estimates vary from 100,000 to 200,000
protestors
   August 2001   - Angola, national strikes resulting from IMF
prescribed adjustment policies
   3 August 2001 - The IMF and the World Bank invite public
participation in a comprehensive review of the Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (PRSP) approach
     8 August 2001   - Mexico, approximately 5000 farmers march in
protest of free trade and globalization's effects on them and
destroying self sufficiency in food production
   11 September 2001   - New York World Trade Center and
Washington's 'Pentagon' (US government building) attacked by
terrorists
   9-13 September 2001 - Doha, Qatar, The World Trade Organization
(WTO) 4th Ministerial Conference
- Small number of people demonstrate in Doha.
- Demonstrations globally in connection with the Doha WTO
meeting
Comment: little or no access to Qatar granted to individuals or
groups wishing to oppose WTO policies, due to anti-democratic and
absolutist monarchical state. Since the meeting held in Seattle
(1999) WTO meetings increasingly held under anti-democratic
circumstances
   So called Anti-globalisation movement lost momentum following
reaction after the 11th of September attacks in the US
December 2001   - Argentina, two days of violent protests at further
IMF austerity measures, and economic meltdown that brought down
the government. More than 16 people known to have been killed
     2002 - Washington D.C.
- 'A16', Large scale public protests against the IMF
   January 2002   Protests against World Bank, IMF and WTO.
- Sri Lanka
   February 2002   - World Social Forum, Porto Alegre in Brazil,
meeting attended by over 51,000 people
   28 September 2002   - London, anti-war demonstration. 400,000
people march to protest against a war with Iraq
Link: CND website - information about the anti-war demonstrations
15 February 2003   - Global anti-war demonstrations.
Including 11 European countries and over 600 cities worldwide. In
London alone approximately 2 million people mobilise on the streets
(the largest public demonstration on any issue in history)
Comment: Over 30 million people worldwide involved in protests
against the support of national governments for a war with Iraq.
   Global economic policies implicated in conditions which contribute
to violent acts against US and other nations backing US policies
22 March 2003   - London, 500,000 - 750,000 people mobilize against
UK involvement in the war
Comment: biggest demonstration in UK during war-time 12 April
2003   - London, over 200,000 people demonstrate in London call for
an end to the US/UK occupation of Iraq
Comment: immediate justification for US/UK led war in Iraq not
supported by evidence available after the displacement of the Iraqi
national government and armed forces
1 -3 June 2003 - G8 meeting in Evian, France
- Large scale demonstrations   Notes: 1 Where appropriate a
specific date is given, otherwise only a month or year is given.
Sources (links): Global Issues - Public Protests Timeline to Global
Governance CorpWatch - Grassroots Globalization Fact Sheet
World Bank History - Chronology Anti-IMF/World Bank Protests in
the Global South (1976-2001) & sources


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